fpaniel: the meaning is not that chance killed the dog, but that as to me the dog's death was accidental. With reípect to contingency, future events that are variable, and the cause unknown, are faid to be contingent; changes of the weather, for example, whether it will be froit or thaw to-morrow, whether fair or foul. In a word, chance and contingency applied to events, mean not that fuch events happen without any caufe, but only that we are ignorant of the caufe..

It appears to ine clear, that there is no fuch thing in human nature as a sense of contingency; or, in other words, a fenfe that any thing happens without a caufe: fuch a fenfe would be grofsly delufive. True it is indeed, that our fenfe of a cause is but cloudy and indiftinct with refpect to certain events. Events that happen regularly, fuch as fummer and winter, rifing and fetting of the fun, give us a diftinct impreffion of a caufe.. The impreflion is lefs diftinct with respect to events lefs regular, fuch as alterations of the weather: and extremely in diftinct with refpect to events that feldom happen, and that happen without any known caufe. But with refpect to no event whatever does our fenfe of a caufe vanish altogether, and give place to a pofitive fenfe of contingency, that is, a fenfe of things happening without a caufe.

Chance and contingency thus explained, fuggeft not any perception or notion repugnant to the doctrine of univerfal neceffity; for my ignorance of a caufe, does not, even in my own apprehenfion, exclude a caufe. Defcend ing to particulars, I take the example mentioned in the text, viz. the uncertainty of the time of my, death. Knowing that my life depends in fome meafure on myfelf, I ufe all means to preferve it, by proper food, exercife, and care to prevent accidents. Nor is there any delufion here. I am moved to use these means by the defire I have to live: thefe means accordingly prove effectual to carry on my prefent exiftence to the appointed period; and in that view are fo many links in the great chain of caufes and effects. A burning coal falling from the grate upon the floor, wakes me from a found fleep. I ftart up to extinguifh the fire. The motive is irrefiftable: nor

have I reafon to refift, were it in my power; for I confider the extinction of the fire by my hand to be one of the means chofen by Providence for prolonging my life to its deftined period.

Were there a chain of caufes and effects established entirely independent of me, and were my life in no measure under my own power, it would indeed be fruitless for me to act; and the abfurdity of knowingly acting in vain, would be a prevailing motive for remaining at reft. Upon that fuppofition, the ignavia ratio of Chryfippus might take place; cui fi pareamus, nihil omnino agamus in vita §. But I act neceffarily when influenced by motives; and I have no reason to forbear, confidering that my actions, by producing their intended effects, contribute to carry on the universal chain.

PART II.

PROGRESS OF MORALITY.

HAVING unfolded the principles of morality, the next step is to trace out its gradual progrefs from its infancy among favages, to its maturity among polished nations. The hiftory of opinions concerning the foundation of morality, falls not within my plan; and I am glad to be relieved from an article that is executed in perfection by more able hands (a).

An animal is brought forth with every one of its ex ternal members; and completes its growth, not by production of any new member, but by addition of matter to thofe originally formed. The fame holds with refpect to internal members; the fenfes, for example, inftincts, powers and faculties, principles and propenfities: these are coeval with the individual, and are gradually unfolded, fome early, fome late. The exernal fenfes, being neceffary for felf-preservation, foon arrive at maturity. Some internal fenfes, of order for inftance, of propriety, of dignity, being of no ufe during infancy, are not only flow in their progrefs towards maturity, but require much culture. Among savages they are scarce perceptible.

"The indolent principle; which if we were to follow, we fhould do nothing in life."

(a) Dr Cudworth and Dr Smith,

The moral fenfe, in its progrefs, differs from thofe laft mentioned it is frequently difcovered, even in childhood. It is however flow of growth, and seldom arrives at perfection without culture and experience.

The moral fenfe not only ripens gradually with the other internal fenfes mentioned, but from them acquires force and additional authority: a favage makes no difficulty to kill an enemy in cold blood; bloody scenes are familiar to him, and his moral fenfe is not fufficiently vigorous to give him compunction. The action appears in a different light to a person who has more delicacy of feeling; and accordingly the moral fenfe has much more authority over thofe who have received a refined education, than over favages.

It is pleasant to trace the progrefs of morality in members of a polifhed nation. Objects of external fenfe make the first impreffions; and from them are derived a stock of fimple ideas. Affection, accompanying ideas, is firft diricted to particular objects, fuch as my brother, my wife, my friend. The mind opening by degrees, takes iu complex objects, fuch as my country, my religion, the government under which I live; and these also become objects of affection. Our connections multiply, and the moral sense gaining ftrength as the mind opens, regulates our duty to each of them. Objects of hatred multiply, as well as objects of affection, and give full fcope to diffocial paffions, the most formidable antagonists that mɔrality has to encounter. But nature hath provided a remedy: the perfon who indulges malice or revenge, is commonly the greatest fufferer by the indulgence: men become wife by experience, and have more peace and fatisfaction in fostering kindly affection: ftormy paffions are fubdued, or brought under rigid discipline; and benevolence triumphs over felfifhnefs. We refine upon the pleasure of fociety: we learn to fubmit our opinions: we affect to give preference to others, and readily fall in with whatever fweetens focial intercourfe; we carefully avoid causes of difcord; and overlooking trifling offences, we are fatisfied with moderate reparation, even for gross injuries.

A nation from its original favage ftate, grows to maturity like the individuals above described, and the progrefs of morality is the fame in both. The favage ftate is the infancy of a nation, during which the moral fenfe is feeble, yielding to custom, to imitation, to paffion. But a nation, like a member of a polished fociety, ripens gradually, and acquires a taste in the fine arts, with acatenefs of fenfe in matter of right and wrong. Hatred and revenge, the great obftacles to moral duty, raged without controul, while the privilege of avenging wrongs was permitted to individuals (a). But hatred and revenge yielded gradually to the pleafures of fociety, and to the growing authority of the moral fenfe; and benevolent affections prevailed over diffocial paffions. In that comfortable period, we hear no more of cruelty as a-national character: on the contrary, the averfion we have to an enemy, is even in war exercised with moderation. Nor do the ftormy paffions ever again revive; for after a nation begins to decline from its meridian height, the paffions that prevail are not of the violent kind, but felfifh, timorous and deceitful.

Morality however has not to this day arrived to fuch maturity as to operate between nations with equal fteadinefs and vigour as between individuals. Ought this to be regretted as an imperfection in our nature? I think not had we the fame compunction of heart for injur ing a nation as for injuring an individual, and were injuftice equally blameable as to both, war would cease, and a golden age enfue; than which a greater misfortune could not befal the human race (b).

In the progrefs from maturity to a declining ftate, a nation differs widely from an individual. Old age puts an end to the latter: there are many causes that weaken the former; but old age is none of them, if it be not in a metaphorical fenfe. Riches, selfishness, and luxury, are the diseases that weaken profperous nations: these difcafes, following each other in a train, corrupt the heart, dethrone the moral fenfe, and make an anarchy in the

(a) See Hiftorical Law Tras, Tra&. I.

(b) Bock 2.

Sketch 2.

foul: men ftick at no expence to purchase pleafure; and they stick at no vice to fupply that expence.

Such are the outlines of morality in its progrefs from birth to burial; and thefe outlines I propofe to fill up with an induction of particulars." Looking back to the commencement of civil fociety, when no wants were known but thofe of nature, and when fuch wants were amply provided for, we find individuals of the fame tribe living innocently and cordially together: they had no irregular appetites, nor any ground of ftrife. In that ftate, moral principles joined their influence with that of national affection, to fecure individuals from harm. Savages accordingly, who have plenty of food, and are fimple in habitation and cloathing, feldom trangre's the rules of morality within their own tribe. Diodorus Si culus, who compofed his history recently after Cafar's expedition into Britain, fays, that the inhabitants dwelt in mean Cottages covered with reeds or flicks; that they were of much fincerity and integrity; contented with plain and homely fare; and were ftrangers to the excefs and luxury of rich men. In Friezland, in Holland, and in other maritime provinces of the Netherlands, locks and keys were unknown, till the inhabitants became rich by commerce: they contented themselves with bare neceffaries, which every one had in plenty. The Laplanders have no notion of theft. When they make an excurfion into Norway, which is performed in the fummer months, they leave their huts open, without fear that any thing will be purloined. Formerly, they were entirely upright in their only commerce, that of bartering the fkins of wild beafts for tobacco, brandy, and coarfe cloth. But being often cheated by ftrangers, they begin to be more cunning. Crantz, defcribing the inhabitants of Iceland before they were corrupted by commerce with ftrangers, fays, that they lived under the fame roof with their cattle; that every thing was common among them except their wives and children; and that they were fimple in their manners, having no appetite but for what nature requires. In the reign of Edwin, King of Northumberland, a child, as hiftorians report, might have travelled