all the States was held in Philadelphia the following year. 1787-Delegate from Virginia to the Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia. The proposals Madison offered to the Convention met with such favor as to earn for him the appellation "Father of the Constitution," a term which he modestly declined to acknowledge on the basis that the Constitution was the product of "many heads and many hands." The notes taken by Madison during this Convention were preserved and represent one of the basic sources of American constitutional history of the period.

1788 Coauthored, with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, a series of articles on political theory which appeared as The Federalist Papers. These writings are credited as having been the major force in offsetting opposition to the new government and in achieving ratification of the Constitution. 1789-97-Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives,

defeating James Monroe. Feeling that too much centralization in the Federal Government could jeopardize the democratic rights of people, Madison became a strong ally of Jefferson. They both became leaders of a new party, the Democratic Republicans, who opposed the Federalists headed by Hamilton.

Married Mrs. Dolly Paine Todd of Philadelphia in
1794, widow of a Pennsylvania lawyer. Madison
declined a diplomatic assignment as well as an op-
portunity to serve as Secretary of State in the
Cabinet of President Washington, feeling perhaps
that he could be more useful in the Congress. Prac-
tically all the major legislation of this period bears
the imprint of Madison. This includes the first 10
amendments to the Constitution, otherwise known
as the Bill of Rights; revenue legislation, and stat-
utes creating the Departments of State, War, and
the Treasury.

Madison joined Jefferson in opposing the Alien and
Sedition Acts, as an infringement on civil liberties,
and he upheld the rights of States to oppose uncon-
stitutional power assumed
assumed by the Federal
Government.

1797-Retired from Congress and accepted a seat in the Virginia Assembly.

1800 Served as a presidential elector on the Democratic ticket, voting for Jefferson and Burr.

1801-Was appointed by President Jefferson as Secretary of State. Holding this post for 8 years, he had the complete confidence of Jefferson in handling affairs of state. Most of his problems stemmed from the Anglo-French wars on the continent. He earnestly sought peace with both countries; he did what he

could to protest the impressment of American seamen and the seizure of American vessels by the British. He supported Jefferson's Embargo Act which denied France and England access to American raw materials and products. This embargo was later modified because of its depressing effect on the U.S. economy.

1808-Elected to the Presidency on the Democratic-Republican ticket by a strong majority, Madison inherited all of the problems, and more, that he had patiently and judiciously handled as Secretary of State. He was a "strict constructionist” in utilizing his constitutional authority as Chief Executive, as opposed to the Federalists who were inclined to freely interpret the Constitution. Was reelected to the Presidency in 1812.

With great patience, he endeavored to protect the sovereign rights of the United States notwithstanding the continuing difficulties with England and France. Legislation was enacted during his administration, again terminating trade with these two countries and, later, giving Madison the option of establishing trade with either or both of these two countries if they agreed to respect American rights. Napoleon made a pretense of complying, whereupon Madison declared a nontrade policy with England. The continuing belligerence on the part of the British caused Madison to ask Congress for a declaration of war, which was enacted on June 18, 1812.

The lack of preparation for a war with England initially met with American military failures; the British burned the White House; and the conflict, in some parts of the country, met with such dissatisfaction (particularly on the part of the Federalists) that it became known as "Mr. Madison's War." American sentiment changed, however, after our military and naval forces met with success. A chronicle of many of these events appears in the sections of this catalogue relating to Army and Navy Medals.

1814 The signing of the Treaty of Ghent signaled the close of the War of 1812. It also marked the repudiation of the Federalist Party and its disappearance from the national scene.

With the end of Federalism and the existence of only one party in the United States, the DemocraticRepublicans, lessons of war caused a resurgence of nationalism. A stronger military organization was proposed by Madison. He advocated a tariff to protect industry, and though he had opposed the First Bank of the United States, he signed a bill creating the Second Bank of the United States.

OBV. James Monroe, President of the United States, A.D. 1817. Bust of the President.

By Moritz Furst

REV. Peace and Friendship. Two hands clasped in token of amity; on the cuff of the left wrist three stripes and as many buttons; the other wrist is bare; above the hands, a pipe of peace and a tomahawk crossed. By John Reich

JAMES MONROE

1758-Born on April 28, Westmoreland County, Va.; the son of Spence and Elizabeth (Jones) Monroe, both natives of Virginia.

1774-Attended William and Mary College. 1776-80-Enlisted in the Continental Army, appointed a

lieutenant in the Third Virginia Regiment and later

promoted to major. Served in the battles of Brandywine, Germantown, Harlem Heights, Monmouth, White Plains, and Trenton (where he was wounded).

1780 Studied law under Thomas Jefferson, then Governor of Virginia; became his close friend and political protege.

1782-As an anti-Federalist, he served as a member of the Virginia Assembly; again in 1786 and 1810. 1783-86-Served in the Congress of the Confederation

where he strongly opposed Jay's proposal of relinquishing Mississippi navigation rights in exchange for a commercial treaty with Spain; opposed ratification of the Constitution because it lacked a bill of rights; and argued for a strengthening of congressional authority to regulate

commerce.

1786 Resumed the study of law; was admitted to the bar, and engaged in practice in Fredericksburg, Va. Married Eliza Kortright of New York City, the daughter of a British Army officer.

Participated in the Annapolis Convention (predecessor of the Constitutional Convention) for the purpose of forming recommendations relating to reform of limitations placed by various States on interstate commerce.

1788-Member of the Virginia State Convention which was convened to consider ratification of the Federal Constitution.

1790-94-Elected to the U.S. Senate, filling the vacancy

caused by the death of William Grayson; reelected in 1791 and served until his resignation in 1794.

1794-96-Appointed by Washington as U.S. Minister Plenipotentiary to France.

1799-1802-Elected Governor of Virginia; again in 1811. 1803-Appointed as Minister Plenipotentiary to France

to work with Robert R. Livingston in arranging for the purchase of the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi and the island of New Orleans. By the time Monroe arrived in Paris, Livingston had been offered all the territory ceded by the Spanish to the French. Though the extent of the territory was far in excess of what Monroe was authorized to negotiate, he is to be credited for his willingness to have associated himself with this daring transaction— one which secured all of Louisiana for the United States.

1804 Proceeded to Madrid where he faced difficult diplomatic tasks for his country in negotiating settlements with Spain. Later, he was sent as Minister to London, where he remained until 1807. 1808 Upon his return home, Monroe was defeated by Madison in his bid for the Presidency. 1810-11-Elected a member of the State Assembly, then as Governor of Virginia.

1811-17 Served as Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President Madison and, in addition, took on the duties of Secretary of War (1814-15) after the British captured the city of Washington. 1816-25-Elected to the Presidency, defeating the Federalist candidate, Rufus King; reelected in 1820, receiving all the electoral votes but one.

Monroe regarded the Presidency as an office which should leave the initiation of legislation to the Congress. He did, however, prove to be an outstanding administrator. He gathered about him one of the strongest cabinets ever formed: John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State; John C. Calhoun, Secretary of War; William H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury; and William Wirt, an eminent lawyer of his day, Attorney General.

Monroe's administration, popularly known as the "Era of Good Feeling," was eventful. Florida became part of the United States; agreement was reached with the British, limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes and eliminating the necessity for border forts; the Missouri Compromise was effected, whereby that State agreed that on the issue of slavery nothing in its constitution would be construed to abridge the privileges and immunities of U.S. citizens. A longstanding dispute on American fishing rights in British territorial waters was settled.

The President's message of December 2, 1823 declared: "The American continents, by the free and independent conditions which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subject for future colonization by any European Powers." This pronouncement became known as The Monroe Doctrine.

1825-Retired to his farm, Ash Lawn, in Loudon County, Va., 5 miles from Charlottesville. He inherited another estate, Oak Hill, in the same county, from an uncle. The mansion he built on the latter estate was designed by Jefferson and executed by the White House Architect, James Hoban. 1828-Member of the board of visitors, University of Virginia.

1829-Member and president of the Virginia Constitutional Convention.

1830-Moved to New York City to be with his daughters; died there on July 4, 1831; interment was in Marble Cemetery on Second Street in New York City; reinterred in Hollywood Cemetery, Richmond, Va., in 1858.

Missouri Compromise-March 6, 1820, 3 Stat. 545; March 2, 1821, 3 Stat. 645.

OBV. John Quincy Adams, President of the United
States, 1825. Bust of the President.
By Moritz Furst.

REV. Peace and Friendship. Two hands clasped in token of amity; on the cuff of the left wrist three stripes and as many buttons; the other wrist is bare; above the hands, a pipe of peace and a tomahawk crossed.

By John Reich.

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS, "The Old Man Eloquent" 1767-Born in Braintree (now Quincy), Mass., July 11, the son of John Adams, second President of the United States, and Abigail Adams. 1778-Traveled abroad with his father, then on a mission to France.

1780-Attended the University of Leyden, where he

learned Latin and Greek.

1781-Was appointed private secretary to Francis Dana, Minister to Russia. Remained in St. Petersburg

until October 1782, after which he resumed his studies at The Hague.

1783-Was present at the signing of the definitive treaty of peace in Paris.

1786 Entered Harvard College; graduated in 1788. 1791-Having concluded his studies in law under

Theophilus Parsons of Newburyport, he was admitted to the Massachusetts bar and commenced practice at Boston.

FRIENDSHI

Wrote series of articles for the Boston Centinel, under the signatures of "Publicola" and "Marcellus," on questions of the day which attracted national and international attention. Defended President Washington's policy of neutrality in the conflict between England and France. 1794-97-Appointed by President Washington as U.S. Minister to the Netherlands.

1797-Married Louisa Catherine Johnson, daughter of the American consul at London. 1797-1801-In a letter dated February 20, 1797, Wash

ington commended young Adams to his father, then President-elect, and advised him not to withhold promotion from him because he was his son. He was eventually appointed to serve as U.S. Minister to Berlin. While there he negotiated a treaty of amity and commerce with the Prussian Government.

1802-Was elected to the Massachusetts State Senate. 1803-08 Elected as a Federalist, he served in the U.S.

Senate. While in this post he acted with independence and without regard to party lines. He voted with the Republicans for the Louisiana Purchase; he voted with the Democrats in vigorously supporting Jefferson's Embargo and Non-Importation Acts of 1807 though they were strongly opposed by the commercial interests of New England. Two years before his term was due to expire, the Federalists called a special election for a candidate

to replace him, whereupon he resigned his Senate seat in 1808.

Adams also held a professorship in rhetoric and belles-lettres at Harvard College (1805-09). 1809-14-Appointed by President Madison as the first U.S. Minister to the Court of St. Petersburg. He chronicled the events leading to Napoleon's invasion of Russia, the latter's defeat and downfall. In 1813, Adams, Bayard, Clay, Russell, and Gallatin were appointed commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace with Great Britain. They met the British diplomats at Ghent, and after a protracted negotiation of 6 months, signed a treaty of peace December 24, 1814. 1815-Assisted in concluding a commercial agreement with Great Britain; was later appointed U.S. Minister to Great Britain, a post he held until 1817. 1817-25-Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President

Monroe. The major role he played in laying down basic tenets of U.S. foreign policy, including principal authorship of the Monroe Doctrine, established him as one of the greatest Secretaries of State in American history. He led the negotiations which resulted in the purchase of the Floridas from Spain. He also conducted the negotiations which resulted in the fisheries convention of 1818 with Great Britain. By this agreement, the United States renounced its right to fish in British waters in North America-a right which was established by his father, the President, in 1783.

1824 The presidential election of this year fell into the

House of Representatives because none of the candidates received a majority of the electors' votes. In addition to Adams, the other candidates were Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, William H. Crawford, and John C. Calhoun. Not being among the three candidates with the highest number of electoral votes, Clay threw his support to Adams and thus helped achieve the latter's election by the House, as President of the United States. 1825-28-Adams' administration as President was not the

most productive period of his public service. Strong political opposition developed in the Congress resulting in the pigeonholing of legislative proposals. There was enacted, however, legislation for the protection of New England industries, which was referred to as the "Tariff of Abominations" by the agricultural South which wanted free trade.

Adams did achieve a measure of success in obtaining some "internal improvements" which he recommended in his first inaugural address. Notwithstanding the opposition of the South and New England, Congress appropriated $14 million for public roads and canals. With State aid, the Erie Canal was completed in 1825. In 1826, the first railroad in the United States went into operation, hauling stone from the old Adams' home in Quincy, Mass., to Charlestown, for the construction of the Bunker Hill Monument.

The antagonism between the Adams and Jackson forces led to the emergence of a group which later became the Whig Party, the party of Adams. The Jackson people took on the name Democratic Republican Party, which was later shortened to Democratic Party.

1828-Shunning political patronage and organization Adams was defeated for reelection by Gen. Andrew Jackson.

1831-48-Elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, as a Whig, to the 22d and to the eight succeeding Congresses, where he served with distinction and independence until his death.

When asked if he felt it to be humiliating to serve as a Congressman after having been President, his forthright reply was that no person could be degraded by serving the Nation as a representative in the Congress or, for that matter, as a selectman of his town.

As a parliamentarian and debater, Adams had no peer in the Congress. He came by the nickname conferred on him by his associates "Old Man Eloquent."

The House of Representatives adopted a rule in 1836, which, in effect, prevented a flood of antislavery petitions from reaching the floor for debate. For the following 10 years, Adams was the chief voice and champion in the House for the right of petition. He met with success on December 3, 1844, when the gag rule was repealed. 1846-Adams was instrumental in getting a favorable vote in the Congress for the establishment of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. 1848-Died of a stroke while in the Speaker's Room, U.S. House of Representatives, Washington, on February 23. Interment was made in the family burial ground at Quincy, Mass.

Tariff Act-May 19, 1828, 4 Stat. 270-5.