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These last statements are general; they have the character that is at once the glory and the difficulty of science. The other attribute, superior certainty, or truth, does not necessarily make scientific knowledge less intelligible; although it too sometimes involves cumbrous qualifications and technical symbols. But information, when of a highly generalized sort, is, in the vast majority of instances, taken into the mind with labor, and needs all the aids that method can afford.

42. Individual facts are the foundation of the generalities, and are therefore essential to the structure. And as the generalizing process can be shown to yield three distinct products, we have, in all, four constituent elements of science, which are as follows:—

I. Individual objects, facts, or observations.

II. Objects classified according to some common property, to which a general name may be applied, and which admits of being accurately defined. This opera tion may be called, for our present purpose, Definition.

All known things agreeing in the round form are brought together in the mind; a general name—round, or circle—is applied to them; and we are able farther to frame a definition for precisely expressing this property. So with river, city, man, virtue, &c. This process is sometimes called generalizing a notion.

III. The regular concurrence of two natural properties, disclosed by a comparison of particular concurrences, may be expressed in a General Law, Proposition, or Affirmation. This is Induction.

Exposition is principally occupied with these general laws, principles, or propositions. The statement of individual facts, and the definition, are in a manner subsidiary to them.

IV. A proposition resulting, not from the comparison of particulars, but from applying a more general prop osition already established, is said to arise by DEDUCTION.

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As will be seen, the deductive statement frequently appears in arguments, or reasons adduced in proof or in disproof of some allegation.

43. With or without the name, we have something of the reality, of science, whenever knowledge is expressed generally.

We have the whole reality, when the pains usual in science have been expended in testing the truth of the general proposition. But there are many generalities current in ordinary conversation and business, too little tested, and too loosely worded, to deserve the name of science. Still, such as they are, the mode of expounding them is the same as in the case of the more vigorously established principles. The partially correct maxims—"Prosperity makes friends, and adversity tries them," "Unlimited power vitiates the character," "Age blunts the faculties and the powers of enjoyment," "Governments resting on fear alone are unstable,"—would receive the same expository handling as the most precise doctrines of the physical or other sciences.

The strivings and energies of men have always been towards general truths. The multitude of details presented in nature would overwhelm the human faculties, but for the similarities or repetitions traceable throughout, and the consequent power of summing up many facts in a single affirmation. The resulting advantages are undeniable, but the generalities themselves are often of an abstruse nature, and not to be understood without difficulty. The mind is adapted to comprehend the individual and the concrete; the general necessarily partakes of the abstract.

44. That each individual fact and every General principle should be expressed clearly, and as simply as may be, is no more than is required in all the modes of communication by language.

45. In the statement of Individual facts by themselves, there is nothing peculiar to science. They take

their place in scientific exposition, as aids to our understanding of the generalities.

46. The first Generalized element is the Notion, or This often stands in need of ex

general property. planation.

Many lengthened expositions are concerned, not with principles or laws, but with single ideas, notions, or abstractions: Justice, Right, Civilization, Poetry, Philosophy, Nature, are a few examples.

47. Whatever is necessary either to determine the meaning of a notion, or to render it intelligible, may be included under Definition.

As two notions at least always enter into a principle, proposition, or truth, Definition must be preliminary to the determining and expounding of principles. Before we can deal in any way with the proposition that " Liberty causes the prosperity of nations," we must clearly understand the notions Liberty and Prosperity.

48. (1.) We define by producing individual or concrete instances. This is the method of Particulars.

As every general element, whether notion or proposition, grows out of the comparison of particulars, the direct mode of enabling the mind to grasp it, is to bring forward the particulars, or an adequate selection of them.

Thus we may explain the notion of Roundness, by producing a number of round bodies, varying in size and material. To explain Liquidity, we show, or refer to, a series of liquids. To give the meaning of Solution, a sufficient variety of instances are cited. We may expound Beauty, by adducing a number of beautiful things; Poetry, by mentioning known poems; Law, by different examples of laws.

Physical science has to explain the highly generalized properties, Inertia, Motion, Velocity, Equilibrium, Elasticity, Polarity, Electricity, Heat,

DEFINING BY PAETICULAES.

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Chemistry has to deal with one grand property, among others, known as Affinity, or Chemical Union.

Physiology deals with Cells, Vital Force, Assimilation, &c. In the Human Mind, we have numerous high generalities, Feeling, Thought, Volition, Conscience, Beauty.

In the Political Sciences occur Government, Law, Social Order, Civilization, Liberty, Right, Democracy, &c.

In the Natural History sciences, where classification prevails, the properties of a class can be shown by referring to the members or species composing it. The class Coniferm is defined by what is common to its members.

Barrow's famous definition of wit is an enumeration of the subordinate kinds or species. The explanation by this mode would be carried to its utmost by a selected array of witticisms, sufficiently numerous and various to represent everything that comes fairly under the name.

49. (2.) By indicating the quality opposed to, or excluded by, the one in question. This is the method of Antithesis or Contrast.

Antithesis has heen already exemplified among the Figures. Its force grows out of the essential doubleness of all knowledge, a doubleness disguised by the forms of language. When we mention heat, it is unnecessary to add, what only completes the statement, the absence of cold. The filling up of this ellipsis is often, however, an aid in the exposition of general or abstract properties, or notions.

Thus, we might complete the definition of a Liquid, by mentioning its two contrasts, the Solid and the Gas. "Straight" is defined by its opposite, bent or crooked. "Round" would

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have to be opposed to all the other simple forms, to the rightlined figures, and to the curves of varying curvature. "Transparent" is the opposite of opaque. Poetry" is sometimes contrasted with prose, but still better, according to Coleridge's antithesis, with science.

In explaining such difficult notions as "Self" and "Disinterestedness," we should find the present method of great value.

50. To the particulars coming under a notion to be explained, we may add the particulars of the opposed notion or notions.

We may explain Transparency, first by enumerating the transparent bodies—water, glass, the various crystals, air, &c.; and next by an enumeration of Opaque substances; thus defining the separate notions both by their particulars, and by their mutual contrast.

It does comparatively little good to produce a mere formal negative, made up by applying the negative prefixes to the positive: as, straight, not-straight; prudent, imprudent; just, unjust. The contrasting words Unjust, Injustice, are of use only on the supposition that they can suggest to the mind a number of the particulars opposed to those coming under Just, Justice. This suggesting power is more likely to be connected with names independently formed; thus "savage" is of greater service than "un-civilized” in defining Civilization by contrast.

51. (3.) In the case of a complex notion, we may define or explain by stating the constituent notions. This is the method of Analysis; it is also the Verbal Definition.

There are some notions of a simple or ultimate nature. Such are Resistance (Force), Motion, Line, Form, Quantity, Likeness, Difference, Succession, the characteristic feelings of the senses— Tastes, Odors, Touches, Sounds, Sights, the simple emotions —Wonder, Fear, Anger, Love, &c. These we can conceive only by actual experience of individual instances. By reminding us of these particular experiences, any one may enable us to recognize their agreement, which matter of agreement is the notion, or generality. By being farther reminded of particular instances of the contrasting notion in any case, we shall be still better impressed with the common property in question. Resistance is opposed to unimpeded energy, and by considering examples of both, we attain the notion of each.

But the vast majority of our notions are complex, being

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