general attributes, it is of the nature of science; and, when striking emotional effects are aimed at, it is a species of poetry.

CHAPTER II.

NARRATIVE.

18. Narrative composition applies to a succession of views, or to things changing from one phase to another, and to the stream of events.

Language, being itself successive, is best adapted to inform us of successions. Hence, in cases where the individual phases 'or objects that pass before the view are of a simple and intelligible nature, Narrative is easier both to compose and to comprehend than Description. The narrative of incidents in a Fable is such as to dispense with rules of art. Even when the subject is of wider scope, there may be no more than a single thread to follow, the deliberations and dictates of one mind. But events of importance usually imply a mechanism and a set of arrangements, more or less complicated, and occupying a definite space; thus pre-supposing the means of Description. Sudh are the movements of armies, and the occupation of new countries; the larger processes of industry; the busy life of cities; the workings of Nature on a grand scale; the vicissitudes of the seasons, day and night, storms, tides, and the flow of rivers; geological changes; the evolution of vegetable and animal life. Narration, therefore, may have to put on the guise of a series of descriptions. Whence the necessity for the two following precautions:—

(1.) In Narrative, the scenes should not be shifted oftener, or to a greater extent, than is absolutely necessary.

The reader should be spared the work of often re-construct

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ing the ground plan, as well as the fatigue of distracting pictures. When one description can, by slight curtailments or additions, be made to answer throughout, to depart from it is a waste of mental force.

(2.) Clear intimation should be given of any change of scene, or of the introduction or the disappearance of an important agent.

This essential of perspicuous narrative is often disregarded, especially by the poets; they being unable to give such intimations in poetic diction. In the Faerie Queen, personages appear and disappear without warning; and the whole action. is rendered hazy by the uncertainty of the groundwork. Stage directions would be invaluable in these cases.

19. I. The first principle of Narrative is to follow the Order of Events. This implies placing the events before us as we should have witnessed them.

It is also the order of dependence, or cause and effect, a relationship commonly made prominent in narrative.

A historian is required, not merely to relate events, but to explain or account for them. In other words, he has to show how they conform to the ordinary laws of the world. His personages must be seen to be actuated by the usual motives of mankind; he must find, in the recognized modes of working of things, adequate causes for whatever has happened.

Such explanatory accompaniments are said to make a history philosophical. There is, however, no history that is not philosophical in some degree. The difference between one historian and another has regard to the accuracy and penetration that they severally display in accounting for the transactions narrated by them.

20. To assign the date of every transaction is to give it a definite place, and to institute one vital bond of connection between it and other transactions.

Chronology is the skeleton, the chart, of history. It is what

latitude and longitude are to geography. Every event is by this means set in a definite position towards every other; any two events are either contemporary or successive, with a fixed interval between. Hence there is no rule of historical composition more imperative than the easily obeyed one of giving dates. It is hard to comprehend Gibbon's motives in not supplying a marginal chronology.

To fix upon a year and assign the things transacting therein, throughout all the countries historically known, is a favorite theme with Macaulay, and would constitute a good exercise for pupils studying history. Among countries having relations with each other—in war, alliance, trade, &c.-these contemporaneous events will often be found connected; and every sort of connection both imparts interest and ^ids memory.

21. For the better explanation of events, a backward reference may be necessary.

Whatever period an historian selects, he starts with a certain condition of things, which he is desirous to account for. He therefore gives a short summary of previous transactions, confining himself to such as bear on this special end.

Macaulay's History of James II. is prefaced by a rapid survey of the History of England. An historian of the battle. of Waterloo would have to prepare his readers by a summary like the following:—

The great political event of the end of the last century, the French Revolution of 1789, expelled the dynasty that had ruled France for many ages, and established a democratic government, which, after a series of vicissitudes, marked by intense party feelings, gave way to the usurpation of Napoleon, who had distinguished himself as a victorious general in the wars of the Republic. His great military career, begun in Italy, extended over Europe, ending in the subjugation of the Spanish Peninsula, the Low Countries, and a great part of Germany. The British power, co-operating with the subjugated nations, through that memorable struggle known as the Peninsular War, at last succeeded in wresting from him his conquests, and in making him a prisoner and an exile in the island of Elba. He, however, contrived to escape from his confinement, to make good a landing in France, and, by the attraction of his name, to muster the military power of the country, and

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tion of the feelings. In this light, History participates of the nature of Poetry, of which it commands many elements.

(1.) There is always a powerful attraction in human personality—man's interest in man. Our sympathy with the race in general, and with our own, or any other, country in particular, engages us with human affairs in the past.

(2.) The spectacle of great heroic men, and of the collective force of nations, displaying itself in war or in peace, is imposing and sublime.

(3.) It is in narration that we enjoy the stir of movement and the interest of plot.

(4.) Sometimes we are gratified by a righteous moral retribution, and by the success of worthy endeavors.

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(5.) The progress or improvement of mankind is a natural aspiration, lending interest to the course of events. The following passage from Macaulay brings out this special interest, and is also deserving of being quoted as an example of Strength, and of the arts of Poetry embodied in prose :—

"The sources of the noblest rivers which spread fertility over continents, and bear richly laden fleets to the sea, are to be sought in wild and barren mountain tracts, incorrectly laid down in maps, and rarely explored by travellers. To such a tract the history of our country during the thirteenth century may not inaptly be compared. Sterile and obscure as is that portion of our annals, it is there that we must seek for the origin of our freedom, our prosperity, and our glory. Then it was that the great English people was formed; that the national character began to exhibit those peculiarities which it has ever since retained; and that our fathers became emphatically islanders,—islanders not merely in geographical position, but in their politics, their feelings, and their manners. Then first appeared with distinctness that constitution which has ever since, through all changes, preserved its identity; that constitution of which all the other free constitutions in the world are copies, and which, in spite of some defects, deserves to be regarded as the best under which any great society has ever yet existed during many ages. Then it was that the House of Commons, the archetype of all the representative assemblies which now meet either in the Old or in the New World, held its first sittings. Then it was that the common law rose to the dignity of a science, and rapidly became a not unworthy rival of the imperial jurisprudence. Then it was that the courage of those sailors who manned the rude

barks of the Cinque Ports first made the flag of England terrible on the seas. Then it was that the most ancient colleges which still exist at both the great national seats of learning were founded. Then was formed that language, less musical, indeed, than the languages of the south, but in force, in richness, in aptitude for all the highest purposes of the poet, the philosopher, and the orator, inferior to that of Greece alone. Then, too, appeared the first faint dawn of that noble literature, the most splendid and the most durable of the many glories of England."

33. VI. A History is appropriately commenced with the Geography of the country.

It is not an historian's province to teach Geography. Still, as few readers are well versed in the Geography of any country, and as the writer of a history knows exactly what are the geographical features that concern the events to be related, he does well to preface his work with a sketch adapted to his own ends. The other method of attaining the object—to introduce the local descriptions piecemeal, as they are wanted—is less compatible with a comprehensive view. In any case, an acquaintance with localities is essential to realizing the events graphically, and gives them an additional hold on the memory. Between Geography and History there is a mutual support.

The physical features of the country constitute the first part of the delineation, the coasts, plains, mountains, rivers, fertile and barren tracts, mines, vegetation, animal life, &c. Then follows what it is now usual to call the Political Geography—the races that inhabit the country, their distribution, their industry, the towns, the government, &c.

In such a detail, opportunities may be found of disburdening the future narrative of explanations necessary to comprehend the events. Such matters—pertinent to all national movements—as the industry and resources of the country, the character and habits of the population, the political system, or the working of the government, are to be understood once for all, and are merely to derive confirmation from the progress of the history.

34. VII. Considered as unfolding the progress or civilization of a people, and thereby furnishing political