portation problems, and a subway system is considered the only possible satisfactory solution. The question of the security of a subway system in earthquakes has been a matter for discussion and study.

The wide streets that are being created in Tokyo are partly a measure of safety against earthquakes. Probably 10 per cent of the city's area is devoted to making streets wider than they would have been otherwise. This feature probably develops benefits offsetting its costs.

The extra cost of insurance must also be considered in listing the penalties attaching to the location of the district in an earthquake

FIG. 46.-PUBLIC FUNERAL HALL, YOKOHAMA

The funeral hall is a municipal institution which can be used by anyone for conducting funeral ceremonies under any religious auspices. The building shows the possibilities of adapting typical Japanese architecture to modern fireproof reinforced concrete construction.

It is important to note that the extra costs above mentioned are for securing safety against earthquakes, and, when once incurred should dispel fears of future disasters such as the 1923 destruction. Tokyo is planning to pay the costs for safety, and the city will be comparatively sure that the horrors of the last disaster will not occur again. Even with an equally severe earthquake the fireproof zones, the new parks, the wider streets, and the fireproof bridges will serve to keep the destruction of life and property within narrow limits.

TOTAL EXPENDITURES FOR RECONSTRUCTION

An attempt will be made to give a rough estimate of what may be considered a rather complete reconstruction program. Public works outside of the official reconstruction program are omitted. A figure is given for a total estimated expenditure and one for the expendi

ture to date. In the case of private construction the total estimated amount is taken as the amount expended to date. In other words, the total estimated expenditure is that expected to produce a city on an elaborate ground plan with many imposing edifices, but with a great number of cheap temporary houses, whose replacement can only be expected to be carried out as a gradual development. The ratio of expenditure to date to the total estimated expenditure gives an indication of the extent of completion of the reconstruction.

It may be said in a general way that to the observer from an elevated location Tokyo appears to be completely reconstructed-that

The Yokohama plant of the Nisshin Flour Mill Co. is a reinforced concrete structure erected by a Tokyo firm. It is quite possible to make factory buildings entirely fireproof and earthquake proof.

is, practically the entire area appears to be covered with structures. In Yokohama a greater area of ruins is visible, although remarkable progress has recently been made there.

It is estimated in the following figures showing estimated expenditures in Tokyo that 75 per cent of the temporary barracks will remain and that proportion of the total estimated cost is hence figured in the reconstruction costs. Some of the figures are necessarily very rough, but even an intelligent guess at some of the items affords a better picture of the situation than can otherwise be obtained by those not on the scene.

This indicates a completion of 64 per cent of the total project of producing a reconstructed city. The subsidies for fireproof construction have not been included, as these will be covered in the estimated cost of private building work. The figures for private buildings given above are those for Tokyo and suburbs. For Tokyo city proper, which is perhaps the figure of more immediate interest, 150,000,000 yen would replace the figure of 575,000,000 yen and the amounts would then be 1,216,000,000 total estimated expenditure and 629,000,000 already expended. The following are the corre sponding figures for Yokohama:

ESTIMATED EXPENDITURES FOR RECONSTRUCTION IN YOKOHAMA

This indicates that 73 per cent of the project of re-creating the city has been completed. The grand totals for Tokyo and Yokohama combined are as follows: Total estimated expenditure, 1,879,000,000; expended to the middle of 1927, 1,227,000,000. This does not include the vast sums expended in many of the small towns between Tokyo and Yokohama which have become an integral part of the district.

STATUS OF RECONSTRUCTION PROGRAM

According to information acquired from Government sources at the end of September 1927, the Reconstruction Bureau's program was 55 per cent complete in both Tokyo and Yokohama. Tokyo city's program was 43 per cent complete and Yokohama city's program was 50 per cent complete. This indicates that the entire work was

about 50 per cent complete (judged by the percentage of money expended) at the end of September, 1927. It is even possible that as much as 60 per cent of the work was completed on a quantitative basis, as a good deal of land adjustment work has been completed for which no payments have been made.

OPPORTUNITIES FOR AMERICAN PARTICIPATION

It is apparent from the foregoing that the entire reconstruction program is far from complete and that the work as a whole is less advanced than the specific part dealing with ground plan, which is designated as the reconstruction program of the municipalities and the Reconstruction Bureau. The greater part of the building work still remains to be done. It is evident that such markets as have existed for building equipment and other materials in connection with reconstruction work should continue to exist for several years to come.

MACHINERY

In the discussion of roads mention has already been made of the opportunities in connection with road construction. From time to time there is a possibility that asphalt plants, paving-surface finishers, larger size concrete mixers, and compressors may be required. One American company has an agreement with a large Japanese concern through which the patent road process of the American company is being used by the local concern and some very fine stretches of this pavement have been laid. Other cooperative undertakings should offer possibilities for mutual profit. Road construction costs are quite high in Japan (largely owing to the fact that construction operations do not proceed with American efficiency or organization) and much greater time is required for road-construction projects. The introduction of more expeditious methods of road construction would be a factor of great importance in connection with the sales of American road-making machinery.

SUBWAY CONSTRUCTION

Subway construction is receiving considerable attention at the present time. It is probable that with the ever-increasing area of the built-up districts beyond the city limits subway construction will be essential to solve the traffic problem. The rails for subways, elevated transit systems, and other projects are at present being supplied by European producers at less than American prices, although on special orders there is an opportunity for American participation. The cars are built locally. There is an opportunity for the supplying of motors and other equipment required for the cars and substations used in connection with the system. It is quite probable that opportunities for construction will be offered to large American contracting firms, provided they are in a position to assist in financing. If the initial subways which have been constructed prove satisfactory, more definite opportunities may be presented in this line.

CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS

There are fairly good opportunities for participation by American contracting firms in the construction of important buildings. Several such firms have constructed and are now constructing large and important office and industrial buildings. In order to participate

in this work a thorough understanding of Japanese customs in general, and in particular those in connection with the construction business, is essential. In the past many errors have been made and difficulties caused by a lack of such knowledge. It is impracticable for an American construction company to work under anything other than a costplus contract or some modification thereof. An American firm undertaking construction on a lump-sum contract would probably encounter almost insuperable obstacles, particularly in the matter of allowable deviations and tolerances considered acceptable in American practice, but which would in Japan be held up as evidences of inaccurate workmanship. The greatest caution is necessary in the selection of personnel in order to assure adaptability to work with native workers, and to produce the unusual performance expected of one on whom several thousand dollars has been expended in transportation.

BUILDING MATERIALS

The market for metal lath and similar reinforcing material is fairly good, although this product is made by Japanese manufacturers and sold at prices lower that those of the imported material.

There seems to be little opportunity for the sale of imported fabricated structural steel, although occasionally, through considerations of time of delivery or other factors, quantities are sold. In the construction of certain types of industrial buildings there is an opportunity for using types of American rolled structural beams which are not made in Japan. Shop fabrication for building work on some recently erected structures has cost about 60 yen per ton. Erection and riveting on steel building work has been done for 12 yen per ton. The satisfactory utilization of high-class American equipment requires highly efficient construction organization. Unless all units are speeded up the efficiency of any one unit can not be fully demonstrated. Unfortunately under the construction methods in use in Japan the item of interest charges does not appear in an important light. Much of the work is done by governmental bodies, as appropriations are made available from time to time; hence the time element does not appear in its full importance. If this element of time and interest charges were fully considered there would be a further incentive to the use of high-class equipment. It should not be understood, however, that the equipment in use is primitive, for many high-class pieces are in use, and there is a growing tendency on the part of road construction officials to appreciate the economies to be derived from the use of such equipment.

In connection with the foundations for bridges, buildings, and other structures there is a good opportunity for sheet piling. The sale of this product calls for the services of technical men who can convince the users of the ultimate economy involved in using heavy, high-class steel sheet piling, manufactured in America, which can be withdrawn and used many times, as compared with the use of the lighter and considerably cheaper European sheet piling which often can be used but once.

If the element of time and interest charges were given full consideration the employment of American contracting organizations would show greater economies. The labor, of course, would be employed locally.