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CIVILIZED INSTITUTIONS.

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spective positions of man, woman, and child, in the family system, are points of vital interest. In all societies, the domestic life covers a large part of each person's existence; and in some, as in ancient Rome, the family is a unit of the state, containing within itself an absolute authority, vested in the head. The Patriarchal family, was, like the Roman, the framework and foundation of the political system.

(4.) The arts of SOCIAL INTERCOurse,

By these we understand, first, the machinery of communication,―roads, vehicles, shipping, &c.-requisite alike for industry, for government, and for the pleasures of society; secondly, the forms of social co-operation, or the rules for facilitating collective action; and thirdly, the courtesies of social life. (5.) MORALITY.

The actions counted moral or immoral by a community differing greatly in different ages, it is expedient to embody, 1st, the moral code, and 2nd, the prevailing degree of strictness or laxity in complying with it. Both the one and the other are highly characteristic of particular periods of history.

(6.) RELIGION.

Religion comprises a system of doctrines relating to the nature and the dispensation of a supernatural government; and a ritual, or the ceremonies observed as religious worship. There being usually a class of men set apart to ascertain and teach the doctrines, and to perform the leading part in the ceremonial observances, some account of this body,-the priestly or spiritual power-should also be given.

(7.) The state of SCIENCE, or the highest kinds of knowledge. The scientific knowledge possessed in any one age and country is not expected to be described by the political historian. All countries capable of receiving it, participate in the existing science of the world; and its different stages are traced in a history apart, having an interest peculiar to itself. Still, the position and spread of science or philosophy in a country at a given epoch, the applications it has given rise to, and above all, the diffusion of the scientific spirit or methods, are of the highest significance.

(8.) LITERATURE and the FINE ARts.

The refined and elegant accomplishments, the inventions for extending and elevating the pleasures of the community, are worthy to be recorded by the historian. In other words, the progress made in Poetry, Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, Decorative Art, the Drama, Polished Manners in Society, Music -is a distinct thread in the network of a people's existence. (9.) The ART OF Living.

After describing these various resources available for the security and happiness of a community, the historian would still find something to say as to their application and adjustment, under a certain plan or theory of living. The ordinary routine of mixed occupation and pleasure, the arrangements of dwellings, the indoor and outdoor amusements and recreations, the social enjoyments, and all other means resorted to for giving zest to human existence,-would be the completion of the full-life delineation now chalked out.

It is not to be supposed possible to obtain the materials needful to complete the above scheme, for any far back period. Macaulay regrets that he has not the means of picturing an ordinary English parlor and bedroom two hundred years ago. Nevertheless, it is desirable to know what things are required for a full delineation, and how to arrange advantageously whatever information is procurable. Many historical facts are obtained by a painful indirect process, the importance attached to them being the stimulus; and there is no reason to suppose that this method has reached its limits in any case. A survey of all the institutions of a complete social state, with a view to finding out their mutual dependence, is the preparation for this indirect or inferential method of ascertaining what is not on actual record.

As an example of a detailed analysis of society, we may refer to the account of the Hindoo Institutions, in the first book of Mill's History of British India. Another will be found in the delineation of Grecian life, in the Homeric times, by Grote; who has also, in detached sketches, presented many carefully ascertained views of Greek society in the best known

EXAMPLES OF HISTORICAL ANALYSIS.

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epochs. The French historians, Guizot, Thierry, Michelet, afford many partial glimpses of the Middle Ages. De Tocqueville's work on the state of France before the Revolution of 1789, contains a minute and searching inquiry into the particulars of French life and society in the last century. Macaulay's interesting picture of the state of England in the 17th century is well known. Becker's Charicles and Gallus give, the one for Greece and the other for Rome, an analysis of the state of society in ancient times; the facts being stated both methodically and in the form of a tale,-attempts worthy of imitation. Many fictitious narratives have been written, reproducing more or less accurate pictures of life in the past, the Ivanhoe of Scott having given the lead.

The History of Herodotus has the great merit of presenting an array of trustworthy delineations of the varied social systems of the 5th century, B. C. The Commentaries of Cæsar are a storehouse of similar information in regard to the countries where he carried his arms.

In narratives that have to record a series of intellectual struggles-as Church History, the History of Philosophy, and Constitutional History—it is well to provide at the outset a summary view of the points in dispute, or the various principles contended for at different times.

36. Historical style draws upon the arts of both Exposition and Poetry.

Under the scientific aspect of History, general views are constantly put forth regarding men, nations, institutions, modes of social action. These are the subjects of exposition by iteration, examples, and illustrations, according to their importance or abstruseness.

Under the aspect of human interest, or as a work of Fine Art, a History is arranged with a view to involution of the plot, dramatic situations, and effective contrasts; and is accompanied besides with an elegant and elevated diction. Gibbon, Macaulay, Helps, Froude, and Carlyle, are distinguished for the prominence they give to this aspect of historical composition.

37. Much of what has been said on History applies, with allowances, to Biography.

A Biography professes to give the experience of a life, and may therefore bring to view and illustrate important truths respecting man's physical and mental nature. The examples presented to us in the lives of prominent men and women may have various bearings. They may instruct us how to preserve health (see, for instance, George Combe's Life of Andrew Combe), to attain knowledge and culture (the Lives of Philosophers, Scholars, Poets, &c.), to play a part in public affairs, to prosper in business, to regulate our families, or to do good in our generation.

Most commonly Biography gratifies our interest in some distinguished person, and is the more acceptable, the more it is invested with the colors and touches of Poetry.

38. The Environment, or surrounding circumstances, physical and social, must be regarded as necessary to the delineation of a life.

Natural constitution and outward circumstances united are our means of explaining both a man's character and his career. The surroundings are no less demanded in a picture aiming only at poetic interest.

39. The form of Narrative occurs in Science and Poetry, as well as in History and Biography.

The Physical Sciences represent the operations of the world under the law of Cause and Effect. It is, however, in the sciences of Evolution, that we have the most characteristic examples of narrative. The growth of a plant, or of an animal, has to be recounted according to the rules of narrative.

In Poetry, narrative is much more abundant than description. The Epic poem and the Drama are based on story. Even descriptive themes are often handled by narrative devices. Homer describes the elaborate shield of Achilles, not by the direct method of Type and Enumeration, but by relating the steps of its manufacture, in the hands of its divine fabricators.

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This evades the difficulty of realizing a complicated description, and sets before the reader the easier task of following a detailed succession. (See POETRY.)

CHAPTER III.

EXPOSITION.

40. EXPOSITION is the mode of handling applicable to knowledge or information in the form of what is called the SCIENCES, as Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Physiology, Natural History, the Human Mind.

The sciences just named are called Theoretical or Pure, being each arranged on the plan of exhausting, in the most systematic array, all the information respecting one department of nature. There are other sciences, in a great measure derived from the foregoing, and having reference to practice, or some end to be attained; as, Navigation, Practical Mechanics, Medicine, Logic, Ethics, Politics, Jurisprudence.

The principles of Exposition are in the main the same for both classes, keeping in view their different objects.

41. While bent on realizing the property that alone gives value to anything called knowledge, or information,—namely, that it shall be true, or certain, Science is further characterized by the attribute of Generality, or Comprehensiveness.

Knowledge may be composed of individual facts; as, "Rome was sacked by the Gauls," "The earth's circumference is nearly 34 times its diameter," "The great pyramid of Egypt is a stable structure" or of statements comprehending many individuals; as, "Conquering hosts prey upon their victims," "The circumference of a circle is about 34 times the diameter," "The form of the pyramids gives stability."

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