CONCURRING STREAMS.

171

The historian of collective Greece has to execute his task by a series of distinct narratives.

26. (3.) The case of two or more contending parties. Hostile operations introduce a new element to perplex and complicate the narrative.

In depicting warfare, or any species of contest, the historian narrates sometimes from one side, and sometimes from the other. Now it is essential to a clear understanding of the operations that the change of position should be open and declared. Actual conflict involves both parties; and there is great danger of bringing about confusion in the picture, by passing in a stealthy manner between the two sides. An eye-witness, like Kinglake at the Alma, retains his point of view throughout; a compiler from various witnesses differently stationed is liable to those furtive transitions of scene. The most obvious course seems to be to describe the preparations first on one side and then on the other; and, during the shock of battle, to adhere to one point of view. This is the usual method of Carlyle. In describing the battle of Prag, he gives a full account of the preparations on the part of the Austrians, and then makes the transition thus :-" We will now return to Friedrich; and will stay on his side through the terrible action that is coming."

27. (4.) The plurality of departments in the same historical unity.

The

A nation plays many parts at one time. Its Foreign relations, which are its wars, diplomacy, and colonization, figure in the history of the world. Even when they do not absorb the historian's attention, they are usually recounted apart. The Internal or Domestic history is itself open to subdivision. struggles to determine the Government, or the Political Constitution, rank first in prominence. There may be other questions that stir the whole life of the nation, and afford an exciting theme of narrative; such are the Revolutions in Religion. After these, come the subjects of quieter interest; Administrative improvements, and the progress of Literature, Art, and Sci

ence. Although the various currents of events must often come together, it is the practice of the best historians to follow them separately. As in battles, so in all other cases of action and reaction, a view from both sides is desirable. The conduct of a war is affected by the vicissitudes of political parties at home; Religious Revolutions are entwined with Literature; Administrative changes (Police, Pauperism, Education, Commercial Policy) are at the mercy of all other influences; still, the separation of the parts conduces to the understanding of the whole.

28. III. The detail of events should be relieved and assisted by summaries.

We have already noticed the use of the summary to prepare for the commencement of a narrative. Its application is much more extensive. It is the comprehensive view that embraces the details in an organized whole such as the mind can retain. No department of composition having a host of particulars to present, is able to dispense with this aid.

An example from Helps is worthy of being given entire :

"The narrative, after many turnings and windings, in the difficult navigation of affairs at court, has now come to that point where Las Casas, having conquered his troubles in Spain, was ready to start for the Terra-firma, tolerably well equipped with all the things that were necessary for a great enterprise of colonization in that part of the world. It remains to be seen how far the Terrafirma was ready to receive him; and whether there would be that concurrence of favorable circumstances upon which success in any enterprise depends, or at least without which success is in the highest degree difficult. For this purpose, it is necessary for the writer to go back a long way in the history of the Indies, to resuscitate Columbus, who had now for many years found the true rest of the tomb, and to describe, at some length, the discovery and settlement of that part of the Terra-firma which had been granted by the King of Spain to the Clerigo, Las Casas.

"Nay further, to bring the subject with anything like completeness before the mind of the reader, it will be advisable to anticipate the Spanish Conquest, and to make some endeavor, at least, to describe the inhabitants of the coast of Cumaná (otherwise called the Pearl Coast), and their mode of life, before they had seen the face of a white man. Hitherto, in the course of this narrative, when the word 'Indians' has occurred, it has conveyed little

more information than if the words 'savages,' ' aborigines,' or copper-colored men,' had been used. And, indeed, so much is our knowledge of different tribes intermingled and confused, that it would be presumptuous to say with respect to any account given, even after the utmost research, of the inhabitants of any particular part of the coast, that it was exactly faithful. Still, some attempt must be made; and, as there was a general resemblance in the languages spoken by the adjacent tribes, even though they could not understand each other, so in the life of these several tribes there was a general basis of accordance, which we must endeavor to bring before our minds, if we would take the full interest in their story which its importance to the world demands for it."

29. The framing of summaries-called also, abridging, abstracting, is an important art, and is conducted in a variety of ways. (See PART I., chap. ii.)

Sometimes it corresponds to scientific generalization, which is the only perfect mode of summing up an array of particulars.

The law of universal gravity is a summary of the fall of bodies to the earth, the round figure of the earth, the tendency of the planets to the sun, &c. The law that supply follows demand, is an abridgment of the phenomena of trade.

In many cases, the art of condensation turns upon discriminating the essentials; which is not possible without a full knowledge of the subject.

In historical narration, the condensed summary is commonly made by passing over many of the connecting links.

The beginning and the end of a long transaction are briefly given, with or without a few selected points in the unfolding of the plot. "Great Britain imposed an obnoxious tax on her American colonies; they resisted, fought, and made themselves independent"-is an easy abridgment of the events of several

years.

It being unadvisable to anticipate the plot, summaries are not given to start with. They are usually retrospective. They substitute for the numerous windings of the narrative the larger

features and the main results; they are the heads, abiding in the memory themselves, and helping the cohesion of the details. A summary of the previous events opens a new chapter with advantage; and is all the more called for, when there has been a considerable break in the thread to be resumed. In merely recurring to the past, in the course of the narrative, a brief summary is the surest mode of reference. (See p. 172.)

30. IV. The Explanatory Narrative is, by its nature, a mixture of narration, strictly so called, with general principles.

The statement of a principle may either precede the recital of the events to be thereby cleared up, or be introduced at the close of the narrative.

When the explanation is of some length, occupying one or more paragraphs, the progress of the narrative is wholly suspended. The shorter explanations take the shape of interpolated sentences and clauses. Parenthetic clauses are often resorted to. (See pp. 137-141, and Extract X.)

31. V. Before attempting to define more narrowly the method of Historical Composition, we have to consider its ends.

And, first, in point of Instruction, History furnishes an array of facts or experience in human nature, more especially in its social workings. It is the inductive basis, and the illustration by example, of the doctrines that regulate man in society; a knowledge of which is what we mean by political wisdom.

History is to us the trial of Institutions. The Absolute Monarchies, Limited Monarchies, Aristocracies, Democracies, represented in operation, are so many experiments as to the best form of government; and we judge them by their fruits. We can study and compare centralization and localization of authority; large states and small; slavery and free labor; castes and equality; Paganism, Mahometanism, and Christianity; Catholicism and Protestantism; state-control in education and

INSTRUCTION FROM HISTORY.

175

its absence. By interpreting, wisely or unwisely, all this experience, states are guided in the choice of their own institutions.

The following is a political lesson deduced by Gibbon from the History of Imperial Rome:

"The division of Europe into a number of independent states, connected, however, with each other by the general resemblance of religion, language, and manners, is productive of the most beneficial consequences to the liberty of mankind. A modern tyrant, who should find no resistance either in his own breast or in his people, would soon experience a gentle restraint from the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, the advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The object of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his dominions, would easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure refuge, a new fortune adequate to his merit, the freedom of complaint, and perhaps the means of revenge. But the empire of the Romans filled the world; and when that empire fell into the hands of a single person, the world became a safe and dreary prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether he was condemned to drag his gilded chain in Rome and the senate, or to wear out a life of exile on the barren rock of Seriphus or the frozen banks of the Danube, expected his fate in silent despair. To resist was fatal, and it was impossible to fly."

Helps says:-"The history of almost every nation tells of some great transaction peculiar to that nation, something which aptly illustrates the particular characteristics of the people, and proclaims, as we may say, the part in human nature which that nation was to explain and render visible. In English history, the contest between the Crown and the Parliament; in that of France, the French Revolution; in that of Germany, the religious wars,-are such transactions."

And again :-" History seems often to be only a record of great opportunities missed or mismanaged. Amid the tumult of small things which require immediate attention, and which press at least fully as much upon persons in great place as upon private individuals, the most important transactions are not appreciated in their true proportions. Besides-and this is the fatal circumstance-when great affairs are in their infancy, and are most tractable to human endeavor, they then appear of the smallest importance; and all consideration about them is lost in