Here at once the words 'nymph,' and 'Solyma' attract our attention; and, on examination, we find that they derive their peculiar virtue solely from the fact that they are the highly poetic form of what, in common prose, would be expressed by 'virgins' or 'daughters' and 'Jerusalem'. Next comes themes' and 'strains,' which are also poetic, and in full keeping with the elevated subject whereof the poem treats; while a distinct and separate effect is traceable to the inversion of the order of the words. A similar inversion would add to the poetic force of the next two lines, beginning No more the mossy fountains,' and ending with 'delight': but the diction in 'sylvan shades' is highly felicitous. Lastly comes the invocation, which is finely worded, with the rhythm and the simple dignity of phraseology in perfect harmony. Next, take a stanza from Tennyson's ' In Memoriam';

I held it truth, with him who sings
To one clear harp in divers tones,
That men may rise on stepping-stones
Of their dead selves to higher things.

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The opening phrase, 'I held it truth,' is the real essence of poetry, being unmistakably marked off from all prose expression of the same thought, however good: as I firmly believed,' 'I was of opinion'. The allusion to him who sings' (viz., Goethe) is also in form poetic; and the very rendering him who sings' for 'poet' makes us feel at once that we are in an entirely different world from that of every-day utterance. Then the second line gives poetic expression to the unity of Goethe's teaching, in the midst of all its variety; employing the archaic terms divers' and 'harp' with much effect. The next two lines are noted mainly for their imagery.

Of the whole, it is to be observed that the effect is obtained more by the diction than by any poetic inversion of words, and that the march of the metre keeps pace with the sublimity of the thought.

Our last example is from Browning's 'Jochanan Hakkadosh':
A certain morn broke beautiful and blue

O'er Schiphaz city, bringing joy and mirth,
-So had ye deemed; while the reverse was true,
Since one small house there gave a sorrow birth

In such black sort that, to each faithful eye,
Midnight, not morning, settled on the earth.
How else, when it grew certain thou wouldst die,
Our much-enlightened master, Israel's prop.
Eximious Jochanan Ben Sabbathai?

The terms 'morn,'

The

The phraseology here is a study of diction. 'deemed,' 'black sort,' are usually reserved for poetry. names beautiful,' 'blue,' 'joy,' ' mirth,' are freely used in prose, without being disqualified for poetry, when connected with suit

OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE COMPARED.

17

able subjects. 'Eximious' is an objectionable word, from not being in sufficient use to be generally understood.*

Notwithstanding the existence of a copious poetic diction, the larger part of the composition must still be made up of terms adapted to prose and used in familiar style. The poetical character is imparted by means of unprosaic arrangements, and of conjunctions with words of the select poetic class.

CONCRETENESS AND OBJECTIVITY.

1. For effects of Emotion, a prime requisite is Concreteness.

Our strongest feelings attach to what is concrete and individual. With a particular city, a mountain or a river, we can associate warm emotions; while in a mathematical plan, in gravity, solidity or fluidity, we have a species of interest quite different and not included among poetic or artistic effects.

The superiority of Concrete phraseology for intellect as well as for emotion has been shown under FIGURES OF SPEECH, SIMPLICITY and PICTURESQUENESS. Further exemplification will occur naturally in the detail of the Qualities.

2. It is important, in view of all the qualities, to note the superiority of Objective thought and phraseology.

The contrast of Subjective and Objective has already been illustrated with reference to the emotional vocabulary (p. 11).

There is greater mental exhilaration in directing our view upon outward things than in dwelling on states of the inner consciousness. Hence when, as is so often necessary, attention is directed to the feelings, the preference is given to names suggestive of outward aspects and indications. In speaking of humanity, it is better to say men are affected in a certain way, than the mind is affected. The

* Wordsworth, in reaction against the School of Pope, maintained that there is no distinct'poetic diction,' and that the best language for the poet is the best language of common life. It has often been pointed out that his own finest poems are sufficient condemnation of his theory. As Dean Church says, "he mistook the fripperies of poetic diction for poetic diction itself". "He was right in protesting against the doctrine that a thing is not poetical because it is not expressed in a conventional meritage: he was wrong in denying that there is a mintage of words fit for poetry and unsuitable for ordinary prose."-(Ward's English Poets, Vol. IV. p. 15.)

best poetic composition is sparing in the extreme subjective Vocabulary.

Compare these two stanzas, from Mr. Arnold's poem 'A Southern Night':

That comely face, that cluster'd brow,
That cordial hand, that bearing free,
I see them still, I see them now,
Shall always see!

And what but gentleness untired,
And what but noble feeling warm,
Wherever shown, howe'er inspired,
Is grace, is charm?

In the first stanza, the language is objective, with associated feelings; in the second, it is almost purely subjec

tive.

Among Figures of Contiguity were ranked the putting of the outward sign of a passion for the passion itself. The advantage consists in giving a fictitious objectivity to the mental fact.

3. Both Concreteness and Objectivity may be promoted by the manner of treatment.

In dealing with an abstract principle even, we may proceed by selecting an example in the concrete, and handling it so as to typify the principle. This method is frequent with all the poets; see, for example, the sonnet of Wordsworth 'To Toussaint l'Ouverture'.

Dryden's two 'Songs for St. Cecilia's day' may be quoted. Both are in illustration of the power of Music. In one we have the general principle announced, and then illustrated by a number of examples showing how music stirs up a great variety of emotions. In the other ('Alexander's Feast'), an individual example is fully described, to show the varied power of music in this single case, the general principle being indicated only at the close. The advantage of the latter plan is obvious.

Dryden's eulogy of Milton

Three poets, in three distant ages born

may be contrasted with Milton's own 'Epitaph on Shakespeare'. Dryden proceeds by the method of analyzing and comparing Homer, Virgil and Milton-a method both abstract and subjective; while Milton simply fixes attention

ACCUMULATION AND COMBINATION.

19

on the works of Shakespeare as producing effects so powerful that they render all other monuments of him unnecessary. The result is that Dryden appeals to our reason; while Milton touches our feelings.

For examples of Concreteness and Objectivity in setting forth general and subjective ideas, we may refer to 'L'Allegro' and 'Il Penseroso '.

Objectivity is a special feature of Rossetti. 'The Blessed Damozel' may be taken as an instance; the strongly sensuous description being the more noticeable, since the scene lies in the world of spirits.

Wordsworth's 'Ode to Duty' deals in abstract phraseology-victory, law, humanity, truth, love, impulse, nature, freedom, thought, reason, self-sacrifice; the abstractions being redeemed by the strength of the feelings associated with these terms.

There is an excess of abstractness in the following from Addison :

Oh, Liberty, thou goddess heavenly bright,
Profuse of bliss and pregnant with delight,
Eternal pleasures in thy presence reign,
And smiling Plenty leads thy wanton train:
Eased of her load, Subjection grows more light,
And Poverty looks cheerful in thy sight;

Thou mak'st the gloomy face of nature gay,

Giv'st beauty to the scene and pleasure to the day. The weakening effect is only partly relieved by the personification.

4. For the production of strong effects on the feelings, it is requisite to Accumulate and Combine ideas and images.

Rarely can an isolated object or impression rouse the mind's energies. In poetry, as in other attempts to awaken a vast mass of emotion, it is the practice to multiply and unite influential circumstances. (See NUMBER OF WORDS, p. 32.)

Take the following from Pope :—

What sounds were heard,

What scenes appear'd,

O'er all the dreary coast!
Dreadful gleams,
Dismal screams,
Fires that glow,

Shrieks of woe,

Sullen moans,

Hollow groans,

And cries of tortured ghosts!

Nothing could be more powerful, nothing more effective in impressing us with the nature of that region whither Orpheus went in quest of Eurydice. The effect is cumulative, and grand.

Another example may be given from Byron's 'Isles of Greece'. The emotion of sorrow for the subjection of modern Greece is stirred up by the accumulation of appropriate facts from ancient Greek history, and fitting allusions to contemporary circumstances. All are intended to bear on the main feeling, and that feeling is deepened by the accumulated expression.

Again, the feelings of forsaken love are expressed in 'Enone' by a varied combination of thoughts and images fitted to her situation. Grief for a lost friend finds a manifold utterance in Tennyson's 'In Memoriam,' Shelley's Adonais,' and Milton's Lycidas'.

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The characteristic of Cumulation and Combination, illustrated on the large scale in these examples, is found in the shortest compositions intended to operate on the feelings. Take the passage from Milton on his blindness (Paradise Lost, III. 41), to show how in the shortest passages cumulation of appropriate circumstances is necessary to the production of feeling, and natural to its expression :

Seasons return; but not to me returns

Day, or the sweet approach of ev'n or morn,
Or sight of vernal bloom, or summer's rose,
Or flocks, or herds, or human face divine.

Poetic epithets serve, among other things, the purpose of accumulating appropriate particulars. The Homeric poetry most fully exemplifies the usage; but it has been more or less followed by all poets,

Combination, in order to be effective, is subject to certain conditions, the chief being Harmony and the avoidance of overcrowding. (HARMONY.)

Closely allied to this is the creation of strong feeling by particularizing objects; more especially, when this is accompanied with the tautologies of intense passion. An effect of this kind occurs in the following lines from Pope's 'Ode on St. Cecilia's day':