SECTION IV. On the Punishments mentioned in the Scriptures.

The PUNISHMENTS, mentioned in the sacred writings, are usually divided into two classes,-non-capital, and capital.

I. The non-capital, or inferior punishments, were as follow:

1. Scourging; this was the most common corporal punishment under the Mosaic law. It is frequently mentioned, both in the Old and New Testaments; and in order that the legal number of forty stripes might not be exceeded, it was inflicted with a scourge consisting of three lashes, so that the party received only thirteen blows, or forty stripes, save one.

2. Retaliation, (Exod. xxi. 24,) or returning like for like, was the punishment of corporal injuries to another. It is expressly forbidden by Jesus Christ, in Matt. v. 38, 39.

3. Restitution of things stolen, and for various other injuries done to the property of another person. (Exod. xxi. 32, 33, 34. 36, xxii. 6. Levit. xxiv. 18.)

4. Compensation to an injured party, to induce him to depart from his suit, was permitted, at least in one case, (Exod. xxi. 30,) but was forbidden in the case of murder and homicide. (Num. xxxv. 31, 32.)

5. Sin and Trespass Offerings were also in the nature of punishments: the various cases for which they were to be made, are specified in Levit. iv. 2, v. 1. 4—7. 14, 15, vi. 1–7, and xix. 22.

6. Imprisonment, though not enjoined by Moses, was practised, both during the Jewish monarchy, and in the time of Christ. In Gen. xli. 14, Jer. xxxviii. 6, Zech. ix., and Acts v. 18, there are allusions to inner prisons or dungeons, where the persons confined were very harshly treated; especially as the ancient gaolers (like those in the East to this day) had a discretionary power to treat the prisoners just as they pleased. To this painful situation of prisoners, there are allusions in Psal. lxxix. 11, and Jer. xxxvii. 16-20.

7. Banishment was not introduced among the Jews until after the captivity. It also existed among the Ro

mans. St. John was banished to the isle of Patmos. (Rev. i. 9.)

8. In the East, anciently, as well as in modern times, prisoners were deprived of their eyes. See instances in Judg. xvi. 21, and 2 Kings xxv. 7.

9. Plucking off the hair, with great violence, was both a painful and ignominious punishment. It is alluded to in Neh. xiii. 25.

10. Excommunication, or exclusion from sacred worship, was a civil, as well as an ecclesiastical punishment, which varied in the degrees of its severity. The first, called Nidui, was simply casting out of the synagogue, (John ix. 22, xvi. 2, &c.,) and was in force for thirty days, which might be shortened. In the second, termed Cherem, or anathema, the excommunicated party was delivered over to Satan, and devoted by a solemn curse. To this St. Paul alludes in 1 Cor. v. 5, and Rom. ix. 2. The third degree was called Sham-Atha, or Maran-Atha, i. e. the Lord cometh, or may the Lord come; and intimated that the party had nothing more to expect but the terrible day of judgment. The effects of excommunication were dreadful the individuals against whom it was fulminated were debarred of all social intercourse, and the privilege of divine worship, and were subjected to various civil disabilities.

II. Eleven different sorts of CAPITAL PUNISHMENTS are mentioned in the Scriptures, viz.:

1. Slaying with the sword, which appears to have been inflicted in any way in which the executioner thought proper. This was the punishment of murder: but in the case of homicide, if the next of kin, called Goël, or the Blood-avenger, overtook and slew the unintentional man-slayer, before he reached an asylum, he was not considered to be guilty of blood. The man-slayer was therefore enjoined to flee to one of the six cities of refuge, which, if he reached, he was immediately protected; and an inquiry was instituted, whether he had deliberately, or accidentally caused his neighbour's death. In the former case he was judicially delivered to the goël, who might put him to death in any way that he chose; in the latter, the homicide continued to reside in the place of refuge until the high priest's death: yet, if the goel found him

without the city, or its suburbs, he might slay him, without being guilty of blood. (Numb. xxxv. 26, 27.) There is a beautiful allusion to the goël in Heb. vi. 17, 18.

2. Stoning was denounced against idolaters, blasphemers, Sabbath-breakers, and other criminals, mentioned in Levit. xx. 2. 27, xxiv. 14. Deut. xiii. 10, xvii. 5, xxi. 21, and xxii. 21. 24. The witnesses threw the first stones, and the rest of the people followed. The frequent taking up of stones, by the Jews, against our Saviour, mentioned in the New Testament, and also the stoning of Stephen, (Acts vii. 59,) and of Paul, (Acts xiv. 19,) have been referred, erroneously, to this punishment: it belonged to what was, in the later times of the Jewish commonwealth, called the rebels' beating. It was often fatal, and was inflicted by the populace on those who had either transgressed, or were supposed to have transgressed, any prohibition of the scribes.

3. Burning alive was the punishment denounced against certain criminals, mentioned in Levit. xx. 14, and xxi. 9. It is also mentioned in Gen. xxxviii. 24. Jer. xxix. 22, and Dan. iii. 6.

The preceding are the only capital punishments denounced in the Mosaic Law: in subsequent times others were introduced among the Jews, as their intercourse increased with foreign nations; viz.:

4. Beheading. It is mentioned in Gen. xl. 19, Matt. xiv. 8-12, and Mark vi. 27.

5. Precipitation, or casting headlong from a window, though rarely used, yet was practised on certain occasions. See instances in 2 Kings ix. 30-33, and 2 Chron. xxv. 12.

6. Drowning is alluded to in Matt. xviii. 6, but we have no proof that it was practised by the Jews.

7. Bruising, or Pounding in a mortar, is alluded to in Prov. xxvii. 22. It is still in use among the Turks.

8. Dichotomy, or cutting asunder, was a punishment inflicted in the countries contiguous to Judæa, (see Dan. ii. 5, and iii. 29,) as it still is in Barbary and Persia

9. Beating to death was in use among the Greeks: it was practised by Antiochus towards the Jews, (2 Macc. vi. 19. 28. 30,) and is referred to by St. Paul, in Heb. xi. 35. (Gr. in our version rendered tortured.)

10. Exposing to wild Beasts was a punishment among

the Medes and Persians; (Dan. vi. 7. 12. 16-34 ;) from them it passed to the Romans, who either cast slaves and vile persons, to wild beasts, to be devoured by them, or sent armed men into the theatre to fight with the animals. If they conquered, they had their lives and liberty; but if not, they fell a prey to the beasts. To this latter usage St. Paul refers in 2 Tim. iv. 17, and 1 Cor. xv. 32. 11. CRUCIFIXION was a punishment which the ancients inflicted only upon the most notorious criminals and malefactors; and it included every idea and circumstance of lingering torture, odium, disgrace, and public scandal. Hence St. Paul takes occasion to magnify the exceeding great love of our Redeemer, in that, while we were yet sinners, Christ died for us, and, for the joy that was set before him, endured the cross, despising the shame and ignominy attached to it. (Rom. v. 8. Heb. xii. 2.) In this punishment, the cross was made of two beams, either crossing at the top at right angles, or in the middle of their length, like an X. Our Lord appears to have been crucified on a cross of the former kind. The horror of crucifixion will be evident, when it is considered that the person was permitted to hang (the whole weight of his body being borne up by his nailed hands and feet, and by the projecting piece in the middle of the cross,) until he perished through agony and want of food. There are instances of crucified persons living in this exquisite torture several days. The rites of sepulture were denied them. Their dead bodies were generally left on the crosses on which they were first suspended, and became a prey to every ravenous beast, and carnivorous bird. This mode of executing criminals, obtained among various ancient nations, especially among the Romans, by whom it was inflicted chiefly on vile, worthless, and incorrigible slaves. In reference to this, the apostle, describing the condescension of Jesus, and his submission to this most opprobrious death, represents him as taking upon him the form of a servant, (Phil. ii. 7, 8,) and becoming obedient to death, even the death of the cross. All the circumstances attending the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, as related in the four gospels, agree with the accounts given of this punishment by Greek and Roman authors.*

* For a full detail of these circumstances, which do not admit of abridgment, see the author's larger Introduction, vol. iii. pp 150-160.

CHAPTER IV.

JEWISH AND ROMAN MODES OF COMPUTING TIME, MENTIONED IN THE
SCRIPTURES.

A KNOWLEDGE of the different divisions of time mentioned in the Scriptures, will elucidate the meaning of a multitude of passages with regard to seasons, circumstances, and ceremonies.

I. The Hebrews computed their DAYS from evening to evening, according to the command of Moses. (Lev. xxiii. 32.)

The Romans had two different computations of their days, and two denominations for them. The one they called the civil, the other the natural day: the first was the same as ours; the second, which was the vulgar computation, began at six in the morning, and ended at six in the evening. The civil day of the Jews varied in length, *according to the seasons of the year. This portion of time was, at first, divided into four parts, (Nehem. ix. 3;) which, though varying in length according to the seasons, could nevertheless be easily discerned from the position, or appearance of the sun in the horizon. Afterwards, the civil day was divided into twelve hours, which were measured either from the position of the sun, or from dials constructed for that purpose.

II. These HOURS were equal to each other, but unequal with respect to the different seasons of the year; thus the twelve hours of the longest day in summer were much longer than those of the shortest day in winter. The Jews computed their hours of the civil day, from six in the morning, till six in the evening; thus their first hour corresponded with our seven o'clock; their second to our eight; their third to our nine, &c.

The night was originally divided into three parts, or WATCHES, (Psal. lxiii. 6, xc. 4. Lam. ii. 19. Jud. vii. 19. Exod. xiv. 24,) which probably were of unequal length. In the time of Jesus Christ, it was divided into four watches; a fourth watch having been introduced among the Jews from the Romans. The hour is frequently used with great latitude in the Scriptures, and sometimes implies the space of time occupied by a whole watch. (Matt.